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Ravindran, R., Donkor, K., Gottumukkala, L., Menon, A., Guneratnam, A. J., McMahon, H., Koopmans, S., Sanders, J. P. M., Gaffey, J. (2022) Biogas, biomethane and digestate potential of by-products from green biorefinery systems, Clean Technologies 4(1): 35-50

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Global warming and climate change are imminent threats to the future of humankind. A shift from the current reliance on fossil fuels to renewable energy is key to mitigating the impacts of climate change. Biological raw materials and residues can play a key role in this transition through technologies such as anaerobic digestion. However, biological raw materials must also meet other existing food, feed and material needs. Green biorefinery is an innovative concept in which green biomass, such as grass, is processed to obtain a variety of protein products, value-added co-products and renewable energy, helping to meet many needs from a single source. In this study, an analysis has been conducted to understand the renewable energy potential of green biorefinery by-products and residues, including grass whey, de-FOS whey and press cake. Using anaerobic digestion, the biogas and biomethane potential of these samples have been analyzed. An analysis of the fertiliser potential of the resulting digestate by-products has also been undertaken. All the feedstocks tested were found to be suitable for biogas production with grass whey, the most suitable candidate with a biogas and biomethane production yield of 895.8 and 544.6 L/kg VS, respectively, followed by de-FOS whey and press cake (597.4/520.3 L/kg VS and 510.7/300.3 L/kg VS, respectively). The results show considerable potential for utilizing biorefinery by-products as a source for renewable energy production, even after several value-added products have been co-produced.

Donkor, K. O., Gottumukkala, L. D., Lin, R., Murphy, J. D. (2022) A perspective on the combination of alkali pre-treatment with bioaugmentation to improve biogas production from lignocellulose biomass, Bioresource Technology 351

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Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a bioprocess technology that integrates into circular economy systems, which produce renewable energy and biofertilizer whilst reducing greenhouse gas emissions. However, improvements in biogas production efficiency are needed in dealing with lignocellulosic biomass. The state-of-the-art of AD technology is discussed, with emphasis on feedstock digestibility and operational difficulty. Solutions to these challenges including for pre-treatment and bioaugmentation are reviewed. This article proposes an innovative integrated system combining alkali pre-treatment, temperature-phased AD and bioaugmentation techniques. The integrated system as modelled has a targeted potential to achieve a biodegradability index of 90% while increasing methane production by 47% compared to conventional AD. The methane productivity may also be improved by a target reduction in retention time from 30 to 20 days. This, if realized has the potential to lower energy production cost and the levelized cost of abatement to facilitate an increased resource of sustainable commercially viable biomethane.

Hickey, D. T., Hayes, D. J., Pembroke, J. T., Ryan, M. P., Leahy, J. J. (2021) The Importance of Extraction Protocol on the Analysis of Novel Waste Sources of Lignocellulosic Biomass, Energies 14(9): 6406

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As the utilization and consumption of lignocellulosic biomass increases, so too will the need for an adequate supply of feedstock. To meet these needs, novel waste feedstock materials will need to be utilized. Exploitation of these novel feedstocks will require information both on the effects of solvent extraction on the succeeding analysis of potential novel feedstocks and how accurate current methodologies are in determining the composition of novel lignocellulosic feedstocks, particularly the carbohydrate and lignin fractions. In this study, the effects of solvent extraction on novel feedstocks, including tree foliage, tree bark and spent mushroom compost, with 95% ethanol, water and both sequentially were examined. Chemical analyses were carried out to determine the moisture content, ash, extractives, post-hydrolysis sugars, Klason lignin (KL) and acid-soluble lignin (ASL) within the selected feedstocks. The result of extraction could be seen most strongly for Klason lignin, with a strong association between higher levels of Klason lignin levels and greater amounts of non-removed extractives (tree foliage and bark). Higher Klason lignin levels are reported to be due the condensation of non-removed extractives during hydrolysis, hence the lower Klason lignin determinations following extraction are more exact. In addition, total sugar determinations were lower following extractions. This is because of the solubility of non-cell-wall carbohydrates; thus, the determinations following extraction are more accurate representations of structural cell-wall polysaccharides such as cellulose. Such determinations will assist in determining the best way to utilize …

Pisano, I., Gottumukkala, L., Hayes, D. J., Leahy, J. J. (2021) Characterisation of Italian and Dutch forestry and agricultural residues for the applicability in the bio-based sector, Industrial Crops & Products 171

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Knowing the accurate composition of biomass is of crucial importance in order to assess and decide on the use and processes to be applied to specific biomass types. In this study, the composition of the lignocellulosic constituents present in forestry, agricultural and underutilised waste residues was assessed. Considering the increased interest on hemicellulose fractions for application in biomaterials and biomolecules, large emphasis has been given in detailing the monomeric constituents of the hemicellulose polymer. Lignin and cellulose, the two other major components of lignocellulosic biomass, were analysed and correlated with the trends in the other constituents. In the samples analysed, the total structural sugars content ranged from 26.0 to 67.5% of the biomass dry weight, indicating high variation between different feedstock and fractions. Hemicellulose concentration and composition also varied significantly (from 38.8% in birch (Betula Pendula Roth) foliage to 22.0 % in rice (Oryza sativa L.) straw) between the feedstock types and within the same feedstock type between different species and different fractions. The extractives content varied greatly between the different species (from 2.66 % to 30.47 % of the biomass dry weight) with high contents in certain fractions of feedstock suggesting more detailed compositional analysis of these extracts is warranted.

Gottumukka L.D, Haigh K, Collard F.X, Van Rensburg E, Gorgens J (2016) Opportunities and prospects of biorefinery-based valorisation of pulp and paper sludge, Bioresource technology 215: 37-49

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The paper and pulp industry is one of the major industries that generate large amount of solid waste with high moisture content. Numerous opportunities exist for valorisation of waste paper sludge, although this review focuses on primary sludge with high cellulose content. The most mature options for paper sludge valorisation are fermentation, anaerobic digestion and pyrolysis. In this review, biochemical and thermal processes are considered individually and also as integrated biorefinery. The objective of integrated biorefinery is to reduce or avoid paper sludge disposal by landfilling, water reclamation and value addition. Assessment of selected processes for biorefinery varies from a detailed analysis of a single process to high level optimisation and integration of the processes, which allow the initial assessment and comparison of technologies. This data can be used to provide key stakeholders with a roadmap of technologies that can generate economic benefits, and reduce carbon wastage and pollution load.

Hayes, D. J. M. (2013) Report on Optimal Use of DIBANET Feedstocks and Technologies, DIBANET WP5 Report84 pages

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The DIBANET process chain, as a result of its patented pre-treatment stage, has significantly increased the yields of levulinic acid, formic acid, and furfural beyond what was considered to be the state of the art. By fractionating lignocellulosic biomass into its three main polymers (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin) it has also allowed for lignin to be recovered and sold as a higher-value product. These developments have meant that the amount of acid hydrolysis residues (AHRs) that have been produced are significantly (up to 88%) less than in the Biofine process. These AHRs are required to provide process heat for DIBANET. Direct combustion is the most efficient means for doing this. If such combustion does not occur and the AHRs are instead used in other processes, e.g. pyrolysis and gasification, then more biomass will need to be purchased to fuel the core DIBANET process. The AHRs have not been proven to be superior to virgin biomass when put through these thermochemical processes. Indeed, many of the results from DIBANET Work Package 4 indicate the opposite. Hence, given that DIBANET, and the modelling of its optimal configuration, is designed on the basis of an integrated process, centred on the core element of the acid hydrolysis of biomass, then combustion is the only viable end use for the AHRs. Given that realisation, the focus of this modelling Deliverable is on what the optimal configuration of the process chain would be regarding the three core stages (pretreatment, hydrolysis, and the esterification of levulinic acid with ethanol). It has been demonstrated that a scenario incorporating only the first stage can be profitable in its own right and allow for commercial development at much lower capital costs. In this instance bagasse is a much more attractive feedstock, compared with Miscanthus, due to its higher pentose content.

Integrating the second stage increases capital costs but improves the net present value. The esterification step is somewhat capital intensive but an integrated DIBANET biorefinery that incorporates all three stages can still be highly profitable providing the furfural is sold at its current market price and the lignin is sold rather than used as a fuel for process needs. Indeed, the DIBANET process should not be considered only in the context of biofuels but as a true biorefinery that produces lower value fuels (e.g. ethyl-levulinate) in addition to high value chemicals and bio-products (e.g. furfural and lignin).

The energy and carbon balances of the various DIBANET scenarios have been investigated and are highly positive with values significantly superior to those for the energy-intensive Biofine process. A socioeconomic survey has also been carried out and has shown that there can be a positive effect on employment, both direct and indirect, particularly when Miscanthus is used as the feedstock. The DIBANET integrated process also holds up well when its environmental and social performances are ranked for a range of important parameters.

The development of the core DIBANET IP towards commercial deployment appears to be warranted, based on data provided from the models developed. Indeed, these models present possible scenarios whereby even demonstration-scale DIBANET facilities could operate at significant profits and provide healthy returns on the capital invested.

Hayes, D. J. M. (2012) Review of Biomass Feedstocks and Guidelines of Best Practice, DIBANET WP2 Report150 pages

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This document is the result of the evaluation of biomass feedstocks, from Europe and Latin America, that took place as part of the DIBANET project. That project is co-financed from the 7 th Framework Programme for Research and Technological Demonstration of the European Union. (Title: Enhancing international cooperation between the EU and Latin America in the field of biofuels; Grant Agreement No: 227248-2).

The work in Task 2.1 of Work Package 2 (WP2) at DIBANET partners UL, CTC, and UNICAMP involved evaluating, on a number of levels, potential feedstocks for utilisation in the DIBANET acid-hydrolysis process (WP3). In the early stage of the project a wide number of feedstocks were examined and relevant secondary compositional data were sought from the literature. Selected feedstocks were analysed at the laboratories of UL, CTC, and UNICAMP and, from these, a limited number of feedstocks were subjected to more in-depth analysis/evaluation.

Work at UL focused on Miscanthus, cereal straws, and waste papers. The wet-chemical and spectroscopic analysis that was carried out on a wide number of Miscanthus samples have allowed for in-depth understandings to be reached regarding the changes in lignocellulosic composition, and potential biomass/biofuel yields that could be realised over the harvest window. Straws present much less chemical variation but have enough structural carbohydrates to warrant their processing in the DIBANET technology. Waste papers can have amongst the highest total carbohydrate contents of any of the feedstocks studied.

Work at CTC focused on the residues of the sugarcane industry - sugarcane bagasse and sugarcane trash (field residues from harvesting). A large number of samples were collected from a variety of sugar mills and plantations. It has been seen that there can be a significant variation in the composition of different bagasse samples, particularly with regards to the ash content. Sugarcane trash has lower total carbohydrates contents than bagasse but is still a suitable feedstock for DIBANET.

Work at UNICAMP focused on the evaluation of residues from the banana, coffee, and coconut industries. It was found that these also have potential for utilisation in the DIBANET process, however the value of the residues for this end-use is dependent on which part of the plant is utilised. For instance, coffee husks have sufficient structural carbohydrates to allow for decent yields of levulinic acid, formic acid, and furfural in DIBANET, however the leaves of the coffee plant do not. Leaves from the banana plant are also of less value for DIBANET than the other parts of the plant (e.g. stem).

A major output of this Deliverable is the downloadable electronic database that contains all of the WP2 analytical data obtained during the course of the project. It contains analytical data and predicted biorefining yields for a total of 1,281 samples. It can be obtained, free of charge, from the DIBANET website and will be a valuable tool for stakeholders in biorefining projects.

This document presents the data and evaluations that were made regarding biomass feedstocks, and also puts forward guidelines of best practice in terms of making the best use of these resources. A shortened version of this document can also be downloaded from the DIBANET website.

Hayes, D. J. M. (2011) Analysis of Lignocellulosic Feedstocks for Biorefineries with a Focus on The Development of Near Infrared Spectroscopy as a Primary Analytical Tool, PhD Thesis832 pages (over 2 volumes)

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The processing of lignocellulosic materials in modern biorefineries will allow for the production of transport fuels and platform chemicals that could replace petroleum-derived products. However, there is a critical lack of relevant detailed compositional information regarding feedstocks relevant to Ireland and Irish conditions. This research has involved the collection, preparation, and the analysis, with a high level of precision and accuracy, of a large number of biomass samples from the waste and agricultural sectors. Not all of the waste materials analysed are considered suitable for biorefining; for example the total sugar contents of spent mushroom composts are too low. However, the waste paper/cardboard that is currently exported from Ireland has a chemical composition that could result in high biorefinery yields and so could make a significant contribution to Ireland’s biofuel demands.

Miscanthus was focussed on as a major agricultural feedstock. A large number of plants have been sampled over the course of the harvest window (October to April) from several sites. These have been separated into their anatomical fractions and analysed. This has allowed observations to be made regarding the compositional trends observed within plants, between plants, and between harvest dates. Projections are made regarding the extents to which potential chemical yields may vary. For the DIBANET hydrolysis process that is being developed at the University of Limerick, per hectare yields of levulinic acid from Miscanthus could be 20% greater when harvested early compared with a late harvest.

The wet-chemical analysis of biomass is time-consuming. Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) has been developed as a rapid primary analytical tool with separate quantitative models developed for the important constituents of Miscanthus, peat, and (Australian) sugarcane bagasse. The work has demonstrated that accurate models are possible, not only for dry homogenous samples, but also for wet heterogeneous samples. For glucose (cellulose) the root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) for wet samples is 1.24% and the R2 for the validation set ( ) is 0.931. High accuracies are even possible for minor analytes; e.g. for the rhamnose content of wet Miscanthus samples the RMSEP is 0.03% and the is 0.845. Accurate models have also been developed for pre-treated Miscanthus samples and are discussed. In addition, qualitative models have been developed. These allow for samples to be discriminated for on the basis of plant fraction, plant variety (giganteus/non-giganteus), harvest-period (early/late), and stand-age (one-year/older).

Quantitative NIRS models have also been developed for peat, although the heterogeneity of this feedstock means that the accuracies tend to be lower than for Miscanthus. The development of models for sugarcane bagasse has been hindered, in some cases, by the limited chemical variability between the samples in the calibration set. Good models are possible for the glucose and total sugars content, but the accuracy of other models is poorer. NIRS spectra of Brazilian bagasse samples have been projected onto these models, and onto those developed for Miscanthus, and the Miscanthus models appear to provide a better fit than the Australian bagasse models.

Publications By The Celignis Team

Ravindran, R., Donkor, K., Gottumukkala, L., Menon, A., Guneratnam, A. J., McMahon, H., Koopmans, S., Sanders, J. P. M., Gaffey, J. (2022) Biogas, biomethane and digestate potential of by-products from green biorefinery systems, Clean Technologies 4(1): 35-50

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Global warming and climate change are imminent threats to the future of humankind. A shift from the current reliance on fossil fuels to renewable energy is key to mitigating the impacts of climate change. Biological raw materials and residues can play a key role in this transition through technologies such as anaerobic digestion. However, biological raw materials must also meet other existing food, feed and material needs. Green biorefinery is an innovative concept in which green biomass, such as grass, is processed to obtain a variety of protein products, value-added co-products and renewable energy, helping to meet many needs from a single source. In this study, an analysis has been conducted to understand the renewable energy potential of green biorefinery by-products and residues, including grass whey, de-FOS whey and press cake. Using anaerobic digestion, the biogas and biomethane potential of these samples have been analyzed. An analysis of the fertiliser potential of the resulting digestate by-products has also been undertaken. All the feedstocks tested were found to be suitable for biogas production with grass whey, the most suitable candidate with a biogas and biomethane production yield of 895.8 and 544.6 L/kg VS, respectively, followed by de-FOS whey and press cake (597.4/520.3 L/kg VS and 510.7/300.3 L/kg VS, respectively). The results show considerable potential for utilizing biorefinery by-products as a source for renewable energy production, even after several value-added products have been co-produced.

Donkor, K. O., Gottumukkala, L. D., Lin, R., Murphy, J. D. (2022) A perspective on the combination of alkali pre-treatment with bioaugmentation to improve biogas production from lignocellulose biomass, Bioresource Technology 351

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Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a bioprocess technology that integrates into circular economy systems, which produce renewable energy and biofertilizer whilst reducing greenhouse gas emissions. However, improvements in biogas production efficiency are needed in dealing with lignocellulosic biomass. The state-of-the-art of AD technology is discussed, with emphasis on feedstock digestibility and operational difficulty. Solutions to these challenges including for pre-treatment and bioaugmentation are reviewed. This article proposes an innovative integrated system combining alkali pre-treatment, temperature-phased AD and bioaugmentation techniques. The integrated system as modelled has a targeted potential to achieve a biodegradability index of 90% while increasing methane production by 47% compared to conventional AD. The methane productivity may also be improved by a target reduction in retention time from 30 to 20 days. This, if realized has the potential to lower energy production cost and the levelized cost of abatement to facilitate an increased resource of sustainable commercially viable biomethane.

Swart, L. J., Bedzo, O. K. K., van Rensburg, E., Gorgens, J. F. (2022) Pilot-scale xylooligosaccharide production through steam explosion of screw press-dried brewers spent grains, Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery 12: 1295-1309

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Brewers spent grains (BSGs) represent the largest quantity of solid waste from brewing, while xylooligosaccharides (XOS) produced from BSG show promising applications in food, beverage and health products. Production of XOS from a Weiss and malt BSG was scaled-up in steam explosion hydrothermal treatment using process conditions from bench-scale liquid hot water optimisations in stirred batch reactors. Three levels of moisture (15, 25 and 32% dry matter) achieved by screw press dewatering were evaluated by varying the treatment temperatures and times. Results show the highest XOS yields (73.1%) were obtained, for both BSGs, at process condition selected (180 C, 10 min) with 25% initial dry matter content. These yields were higher than reported bench-scale optimisations (61%), but obtained using 60% less water; hence, initial dry matter content was an important variable affecting XOS yield. The pilot-scale steam explosion results provide a departing point for a cost-effective commercial production of XOS from BSG.

Hickey, D. T., Hayes, D. J., Pembroke, J. T., Ryan, M. P., Leahy, J. J. (2021) The Importance of Extraction Protocol on the Analysis of Novel Waste Sources of Lignocellulosic Biomass, Energies 14(9): 6406

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As the utilization and consumption of lignocellulosic biomass increases, so too will the need for an adequate supply of feedstock. To meet these needs, novel waste feedstock materials will need to be utilized. Exploitation of these novel feedstocks will require information both on the effects of solvent extraction on the succeeding analysis of potential novel feedstocks and how accurate current methodologies are in determining the composition of novel lignocellulosic feedstocks, particularly the carbohydrate and lignin fractions. In this study, the effects of solvent extraction on novel feedstocks, including tree foliage, tree bark and spent mushroom compost, with 95% ethanol, water and both sequentially were examined. Chemical analyses were carried out to determine the moisture content, ash, extractives, post-hydrolysis sugars, Klason lignin (KL) and acid-soluble lignin (ASL) within the selected feedstocks. The result of extraction could be seen most strongly for Klason lignin, with a strong association between higher levels of Klason lignin levels and greater amounts of non-removed extractives (tree foliage and bark). Higher Klason lignin levels are reported to be due the condensation of non-removed extractives during hydrolysis, hence the lower Klason lignin determinations following extraction are more exact. In addition, total sugar determinations were lower following extractions. This is because of the solubility of non-cell-wall carbohydrates; thus, the determinations following extraction are more accurate representations of structural cell-wall polysaccharides such as cellulose. Such determinations will assist in determining the best way to utilize …

Donkor, K. O., Gottumukkala, L. D., Diedericks, D., Gorgens, J. F. (2021) An advanced approach towards sustainable paper industries through simultaneous recovery of energy and trapped water from paper sludge, Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 9(4): 105471

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This study considered the possibility of reducing the environmental footprint of paper and pulp industry by producing bioenergy from paper sludge by using process wastewater instead of fresh water, and reclaiming water trapped in paper sludge. Experimental studies are conducted with streams from three different pulp and paper mills (virgin pulp mill (VP), corrugated recycling mill (CR), tissue printed recycling mill (TPR)) for sequential bioethanol and biogas production with simultaneous reclamation of water from paper sludge (PS). Total energy yields of 9215, 6387, 5278 MJ/tonne dry PS for VP, CR and TPR, respectively, were obtained for ethanol-biogas production. Virgin pulp paper sludge gave the highest yield for ethanol and biogas in stand-alone processes (275.4 kg and 67.7 kg per ton dry PS respectively) and also highest energy conversion efficiency (55%) in sequential process compared with CR and TPR. Energy and environmental case study conducted on virgin pulp mill has proven the possibility of using paper sludge bioenergy to reduce energy demand by 10%, while reclaiming 82% of the water from the PS, reducing greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) by 3 times and producing solids suitable for land spreading.

Pisano, I., Gottumukkala, L., Hayes, D. J., Leahy, J. J. (2021) Characterisation of Italian and Dutch forestry and agricultural residues for the applicability in the bio-based sector, Industrial Crops & Products 171

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Knowing the accurate composition of biomass is of crucial importance in order to assess and decide on the use and processes to be applied to specific biomass types. In this study, the composition of the lignocellulosic constituents present in forestry, agricultural and underutilised waste residues was assessed. Considering the increased interest on hemicellulose fractions for application in biomaterials and biomolecules, large emphasis has been given in detailing the monomeric constituents of the hemicellulose polymer. Lignin and cellulose, the two other major components of lignocellulosic biomass, were analysed and correlated with the trends in the other constituents. In the samples analysed, the total structural sugars content ranged from 26.0 to 67.5% of the biomass dry weight, indicating high variation between different feedstock and fractions. Hemicellulose concentration and composition also varied significantly (from 38.8% in birch (Betula Pendula Roth) foliage to 22.0 % in rice (Oryza sativa L.) straw) between the feedstock types and within the same feedstock type between different species and different fractions. The extractives content varied greatly between the different species (from 2.66 % to 30.47 % of the biomass dry weight) with high contents in certain fractions of feedstock suggesting more detailed compositional analysis of these extracts is warranted.

Nadda A. K., Sajna K.V., Sharma S., Eds. (2021) Microbial Exopolysaccharides as Novel and Significant Biomaterials, Springer International Publishing

Provides a comprehensive description of sources of exopolysaccharides, and advances in extraction technologies.

Addresses both the sustainability challenges and new opportunities to use microbial exopolysaccharides for industrial applications.

Describes the molecular and genetic basis of microbial exopolysacchaides.

Discusses the importance of exopolysaccharides to mitigate climate changes and carbon footprint.

Allan, K. M., Bedzo, O. K. K., van Rensburg, E., Gorgens, J. F. (2021) The Microbial Devulcanisation of Waste Ground Tyre Rubber Using At ferrooxidans DSMZ 14 , 882 and an Unclassified Sulphur Oxidising Consortium, Waste and Biomass Valorization, Springer, Netherlands

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PURPOSE: Sol fraction, a measure of the free polymers removed from a ground tyre rubber (GTR) by organic solvent, and crosslink density, a measure of the number of sulphur crosslinks in the GTR, are necessary to determine whether a microbial activity causes both devulcanization and carbon degradation. The suitability of two sol fraction measurement methods to assessing the devulcanisation performance of At. ferrooxidans and a sulphur-oxidising consortium on industrial GTR was investigated. METHOD: The devulcanisation performance and the relation between two Sol fraction methods (American Standard Testing Method, ASTM D6814 and the altered method) were determined for Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans (DSMZ 14,882) and a mesophilic, sulphur-oxidising acidophilic consortium (UCT-30), used to treat unleached ground tyre rubber (untreated GTR) for 30 days. RESULTS: Both cultures were able to devulcanise untreated GTR after 30 days of incubation, despite the negative impact of the untreated GTR toxins on growth performance. The sulphur-oxidising consortium displayed the greatest toxin resistance and attached cells were observed at the surface of the untreated GTR particles. At. ferrooxidans (DSMZ 14,882) increased the Sol fraction of the GTR by 1.09+-0.9% (0.46+-0.1% ASTM) without causing any polymer degradation, whereas the sulphur-oxidising consortium increased the sol fraction by 0.56+-0.82% (0.26+-0.1% ASTM), but also caused polymer degradation at the surface of the GTR particles due to the activity of the heterotrophic microorganisms. In the comparison of the Sol fraction methods, ASTM yielded smaller absolute values, but better precision than the altered method. The absolute values for ASTM method fell within the range for the altered method due to the latter's large variance. In addition, the ASTM method produced a change in sol fraction (sol) that was more consistent across the unleached GTR tested than the altered method CONCLUSION: The ASTM sol fraction method provides better precision than the altered sol fraction method, making it more likely to indicate a statistically significant difference, despite the small absolute values measured. The altered method's more aggressive treatment leads to larger observed changes in the sol fraction, making it easier to identify qualitative changes in the GTR properties. However, the higher temperature method also introduces increased variability leading to poor statistical significance of the results. Therefore, the results should not be reported without a quantification of the error.

Swart, L. J., Bedzo, O. K. K., van Rensburg, E., Gorgens, J. F. (2021) Intensification of Xylo-oligosaccharides Production by Hydrothermal Treatment of Brewers Spent Grains: The Use of Extremely Low Acid Catalyst for Reduction of Degradation Products Associated with High Solid Loading, Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology 193: 1979-2003

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Brewers' spent grains (BSG) make up to 85% of a brewery's solid waste, and is either sent to landfill or sold as cheap animal feed supplement. Xylo-oligosaccharides (XOS) obtained from BSG are antioxidants and prebiotics that can be used in food formulations as low-calorie sweeteners and texturisers. The effect of extremely low acid (ELA) catalysis in liquid hot water (LHW) hydrothermal treatment (HTT) was assessed using BSG with dry matter contents of 15% and 25%, achieved by dewatering using a screw press. Batch experiments at low acid loadings of 5, 12.5 and 20 mg/g dry mass and temperatures of 120, 150 and 170 C significantly affected XOS yield at both levels of dry mass considered. Maximum XOS yields of 76.4% (16.6 g/l) and 65.5% (31.7 g/l) were achieved from raw BSG and screw pressed BSG respectively, both at 170 C and using 5 mg acid/g dry mass, after 15 min and 5 min, respectively. These XOS yields were obtained with BSG containing up to 63% less water and temperatures more than 20 C lower than that reported previously. The finding confirms that ELA dosing in LHW HTT allows lowering of the required temperature that can result in a reduction of degradation products, which is especially relevant under high solid conditions. This substantial XOS production intensification through higher solid loadings in HTT not only achieved high product yield, but also provided benefits such as increased product concentrations and decreased process heat requirements.

Swart, L. J., Peterson, A. M., Bedzo, O. K. K., Gorgens, J. F. (2021) Techno-economic analysis of the valorization of brewers spent grains: production of xylitol and xylo-oligosaccharides, Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology 96(6): 1632-1644

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BACKGROUND
Brewers spent grains (BSG) represents around 85% of a brewery's solid waste and common disposal to landfill is increasingly more difficult. Yet BSG is a food-grade by-product with potential economic valorization that can significantly improve resource efficiency and reduction in carbon emissions. This study investigated valorization of BSG through the application of novel high solids hydrothermal processing technology in a small-scale biorefinery, annexed to a brewery. It focused on three scenarios for the production of: (A) the sugar replacement xylitol; (B) prebiotic xylo-oligosaccharide (XOS); and (C) co-production of xylitol and XOS. Economic assessment was conducted by comparing the capital and operating expenditure from process simulations created in Aspen Plus. The process models developed were supplemented with experimental data to improve accuracy.
RESULTS
Internal rate of return (IRR) values obtained were greater than the hurdle rate of 9.7% for all scenarios when considering a conservative market price for xylitol and XOS as US$4500 t-1, yet dedicated production of XOS was economically more favourable with a minimum required selling price (MRSP) of US$2509 t-1 compared to US$4153 t-1 for xylitol. Additionally, the scenario for co-production of xylitol and XOS achieved the lowest MRSP of US$2182 t-1. By-products significantly contributed to 32.7%, 14.2% and 27.5% of the revenue generated in scenarios A, B and C, respectively.
CONCLUSION
These results provide a good platform from which to develop the cost-effective commercial production of XOS and xylitol from BSG.

Bedzo, O. K. K., van Rensburg, E. and Gorgens, J. F. (2021) Investigating the effect of different inulin-rich substrate preparations from Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.) tubers on efficient inulooligosaccharides production, Preparative Biochemistry and Biotechnology 51(5): 440-449

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Commercial production of inulooligosaccharides (IOS) relies largely on chicory roots. However, Jerusalem artichoke (JA) tubers provide a suitable alternative due to their high inulin content and low cultivation requirements. In this study, three inulin-rich substrate preparations from JA were investigated to maximize IOS production, namely powder from dried JA tuber slices (Substrate 1), solid residues after extracting protein from the JA powder (Substrate 2) and an inulin-rich fraction extracted from protein extraction residues (Substrate 3). The preferred temperature, pH and inulin substrate concentration were determined after which enzyme dosage and extraction time were optimized to maximize IOS extraction from the three substrates, using pure chicory inulin as benchmark. Under the optimal conditions, Substrate 3 resulted in the highest IOS yield of 82.3% (w/winulin). However, IOS production from the Substrate 1 proved more efficient since it renders the highest overall IOS yield (mass of IOS per mass of the starting biomass). In the case of co-production of protein and IOS from the JA tuber in a biorefinery concept, IOS production from the Substrate 2 is preferred since it reduces the inulin losses incurred during substrate preparation. For all the inulin-rich substrates studied, an enzyme dosage of 14.8 U/ginulin was found to be optimal at reaction time less than 6 h. JA tuber exhibited excellent potential for commercial production of IOS with improved yield and the possible advantage of a reduced biomass cost.

Bedzo, O. K. K., Dreyer, C. B., van Rensburg, E., Gorgens, J. F. (2021) Optimisation of Pretreatment Catalyst , Enzyme Cocktail and Solid Loading for Improved Ethanol Production from Sweet Sorghum Bagasse, BioEnergy Research

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weet sorghum bagasse displays many characteristics rendering it a promising substrate for lignocellulosic ethanol production. In this study, the steam pretreatment catalyst, enzymatic hydrolysis and the substrate loading for the fermentation were investigated in order to maximise the production of ethanol from the feedstock. The results deemed water as a sufficient pretreatment catalyst since the SO2 impregnation of the biomass did not produce any significant beneficial effects on the yield of ethanol produced. The preferred pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis conditions were incorporated in a fed-batch simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) process using pressed-only (not washed) WIS at a final solid loading of 13% (w/w) that resulted in the targeted ethanol concentration of 39 g/L with a corresponding yield of 82% of the theoretical maximum. Yeast inhibition coupled with significant glucose accumulation was observed at higher solid loadings of 16% and 20%. Ultimately, the sweet sorghum bagasse could be integrated into existing ethanol production regimes to improve the global bioenergy production.

Kamat S., Kumari M., Sajna K.V., Jayabaskaran C. (2020) Endophytic fungus, Chaetomium globosum, associated with marine green alga, a new source of Chrysin, Scientific Reports 10: 18726

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The marine ecosystem is an extraordinary reserve of pharmaceutically important, bioactive compounds even in this 'synthetic age'. Marine algae-associated endophytic fungi have gained prominence as an important source of bioactive compounds. This study was conducted on secondary metabolites of Chaetomium globosum-associated with marine green alga Chaetomorpha media from the Konkan coastline, India. Its ethyl acetate extract (CGEE) exhibited an IC50 value of 7.9?+-?0.1 µg/mL on MCF-7 cells. CGEE exhibited G2M phase cell cycle arrest, ROS production and MMP loss in MCF-7 cells. The myco-components in CGEE contributing to the cytotoxicity were found by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry analyses. Chrysin, a dihydroxyflavone was one of the forty-six myco-components which is commonly found in honey, propolis and passionflower extracts. The compound was isolated and characterized as fungal chrysin using HPLC, UV-Vis spectroscopy, LC-MS, IR and NMR analyses by comparing with standard chrysin. The purified compound exhibited an IC50 value of 49.0?+-?0.6 uM while that of standard chrysin was 48.5?+-?1.6 uM in MCF-7 cells. It induced apoptosis, G1 phase cell cycle arrest, MMP loss, and ROS production. This is the first report of chrysin from an alternative source with opportunities for yield enhancement.

Bedzo, O. K. K., Mandegari, M. and Gorgens, J. F. (2020) Techno-economic analysis of inulooligosaccharides, protein, and biofuel co-production from Jerusalem artichoke tubers: A biorefinery approach, Biofuels Bioproducts & Biorefining-Biofpr 14(4): 776-793

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Jerusalem artichoke (JA) is a crop with excellent potential for application in biorefineries. It can resist drought, pests, and diseases and can thrive well in marginal lands with little fertilizer application. The JA tubers contain considerable quantities of inulin, which is suitable for the production of inulooligosaccharides (IOS), as a high-value prebiotic, dietary fiber. In this study, five JA tuber biorefinery scenarios were simulated in Aspen Plus and further evaluated by techno-economic and sensitivity analyses. Production of IOS, proteins and animal feed was studied in scenarios A and C, applying various biorefinery configurations. Scenario B explored the option of producing only IOS and the sale of residues as animal feed. Scenarios D and E investigated the economic potential of biofuel generation from residues after IOS and protein production by generation of biogas and ethanol respectively, from residues. Based on the chosen economic indicators, scenario B resulted in the lowest minimum selling price (MSP) of 3.91 US$ kg-1 (market price 5.0 US$ kg-1) with correspondingly reduced total capital investment (TCI) and total operating cost (TOC) per mass unit produced of IOS of 18.91 and 2.59 US$ kg-1 respectively, compared with other studied scenarios. Considering the set production scale, it is more profitable when the residues are sold as animal feed instead of being converted into biofuel, due to the capital-intensive nature of the biofuel production processes. The coproduction of protein had a negative impact on the economics of the process as the associated capital and operating expenditure outweighed the associated revenue.

Bedzo, O. K. K., Mandegari, M. and Gorgens, J. F. (2020) Comparison of immobilized and free enzyme systems in industrial production of short-chain fructooligosaccharides from sucrose using a techno-economic approach, Biofuels Bioproducts & Biorefining-Biofpr 14(4): 776-793

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Short-chain fructooligosaccharides (scFOS) are nutraceuticals with numerous applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries. The production of scFOS using immobilized biocatalysts offers some functional and technical advantages over free enzyme counterparts. To investigate the economic potential of the immobilized enzyme system relative to the free enzyme system, a techno-economic comparison was conducted on three methods of scFOS production (powder and syrup forms) at a capacity of 2000?t per annum (tpa) by enzymatic synthesis from sucrose: the free enzyme (FE), calcium alginate immobilized enzyme (CAIE), and amberlite IRA 900 immobilized enzyme (AIE) systems. These processes were simulated in Aspen Plus to obtain the mass and energy balances and to estimate the operating and capital costs, followed by economic evaluation and sensitivity analysis. Profitability analysis showed that all three systems are economically viable as their associated minimum selling prices (MSP) were well below the scFOS market price of 5 $ kg-1. However, the FE system was the most profitable with the lowest MSP of 2.61 $ kg-1 because the savings on cost as a result of enzyme immobilization could not offset the additional costs associated with immobilization. Sensitivity analysis demonstrated that total operating cost, fixed capital investment, and internal rate of return (% IRR) have the greatest effects on the MSP. Furthermore, the syrup form of scFOS production leads to 29% less MSP, compared to powder form. In addition, the studied plant capacities of 5000 and 1000?tpa showed 10% and 16% reductions on MSP respectively.

Sajna K.V., Kamat S., Jayabaskaran C. (2020) Antiproliferative Role of Secondary Metabolites from Aspergillus Unguis AG 1.1 (G) Isolated from Marine Macroalgae Enteromorpha sp. by Inducing Intracellular ROS Production and Mitochondrial Membrane Potential Loss Leading to Apoptosis, Frontiers in Marine Science 7: 543523

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Drug resistance to the classically used chemotherapeutic drugs is the major challenge in their treatment of cancer needing the discovery of novel anticancer drugs. In terms of finding novel therapeutics, endophytes are quite promising as they are an excellent source of novel structures, which exhibit bioactivity. The present study demonstrated a dose-dependent antiproliferative activity of mycelial-derived secondary metabolites from a macroalgae associated endophyte Aspergillus unguis AG 1.1 (G). The antiproliferative activity of A. unguis mycelial extract (AUME) was observed on different human cancer cell lines. PI live/dead assay further confirmed the cytotoxic potential of the mycelial extract. Furthermore, AUME caused mitochondrial membrane aberration and generated ROS production as well indicating its potential to induce cell death by apoptosis. The metabolic profiling of the mycelial extract using GC-MS and LC-MS/MS revealed the presence of fatty acids, a benzoquinolinone derivative, imidazolidinedione derivative, diethyl phthalate and phthalate acid ester, a difuraxanthone, two prenylxanthone analogs and a phthalide derivative and some unknown metabolites. Presence of 4-(4-Hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxy-phenyl)-3,4-dihydro-1H-benzo[h]quinolin-2-one, 1-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxy-2-prenylxanthone, 1,6-dihydroxy-3-methoxy-2-prenylxanthone and 3-butylidene-7-hydroxyphthalide in AUME could be correlated to the notable cytotoxicity exhibited by the endophyte. The additional presence of many unidentified compounds heightened the prospects of finding some novel bioactive metabolites. Our results indicated that secondary metabolites produced by A. unguis AG 1.1 (G) have therapeutic potential as anticancer agents.

Bedzo, O. K. K., Trollope, K., Gottumukkala, L. D., Coetzee, G., Gorgens, J. F. (2019) Amberlite IRA 900 Versus Calcium Alginate in Immobilization of a Novel , Engineered B-fructofuranosidase for Short-Chain Fructooligosaccharide Synthesis from Sucrose, Biotechnology Progress 35(3): 1-9

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The immobilization of B-fructofuranosidase for short-chain fructooligosaccharide (scFOS) synthesis holds the potential for a more efficient use of the biocatalyst. However, the choice of carrier and immobilization technique is a key to achieving that efficiency. In this study, calcium alginate (CA), Amberlite IRA 900 (AI900) and Dowex Marathon MSA (DMM) were tested as supports for immobilizing a novel engineered B-fructofuranosidase from Aspergillus japonicus for scFOS synthesis. Several immobilization parameters were estimated to ascertain the effectiveness of the carriers in immobilizing the enzyme. The performance of the immobilized biocatalysts are compared in terms of the yield of scFOS produced and reusability. The selection of carriers and reagents was motivated by the need to ensure safety of application in the production of food-grade products. The CA and AI900 both recorded impressive immobilization yields of 82 and 62%, respectively, while the DMM recorded 47%. Enzyme immobilizations on CA, AI900 and DMM showed activity recoveries of 23, 27, and 17%, respectively. The CA, AI900 immobilized and the free enzymes recorded their highest scFOS yields of 59, 53, and 61%, respectively. The AI900 immobilized enzyme produced a consistent scFOS yield and composition for 12 batch cycles but for the CA immobilized enzyme, only 6 batch cycles gave a consistent scFOS yield. In its first record of application in scFOS production, the AI900 anion exchange resin exhibited potential as an adequate carrier for industrial application with possible savings on cost of immobilization and reduced technical difficulty.

Haigh K.F, Petersen A.M, Gottumukkala, L, Mandegari M, Naleli, K, Gorgens J.F (2018) Simulation and comparison of processes for biobutanol production from lignocellulose via ABE fermentation, Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining 12(6): 1023-1036

Six conceptual process scenarios for the production of biobutanol from lignocellulosic biomass through acetone?butanol?ethanol (ABE) fermentation, using reported data on process performances, were developed with ASPEN Plus® V8.2 software. The six scenarios covered three fermentation strategies, i.e. batch separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF), continuous SHF, and batch simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) integrated with gas stripping (GS). The two downstream processing options considered were double?effect distillation (DD) and liquid?liquid extraction and distillation (LLE&D). It was found that the SSF?GS/DD scenario was the most energy efficient with a liquid fuel efficiency of 24% and an overall efficiency of 31%. This was also the scenario with the best economic outcome, with an internal rate of return (IRR) of 15% and net present value (NPV) of US$387 million. The SSF?GS/DD scenario was compared to a similar molasses process, based on the product flow rates, and it was found that the molasses process was more energy efficient with a gross energy value (GEV) of 23?MJ?kg1 butanol compared to ?117?MJ?kg1 butanol for the lignocellulosic process. In addition, the molasses?based process was more profitable with an IRR of 36% compared to 21%. However, the energy requirements for the molasses process were supplied from fossil fuels, whereas for the lignocellulose processes a portion of the feedstock was diverted to provide process energy. Improved environmental performance is therefore associated with the lignocellulosic process.

Vodonik M, Vrabec K, Hellwig P, Benndrof D, Sezun M, Gregori A, Gottumukkala L.D, Andersen R.C, Reichel U (2018) Valorisation of deinking sludge as a substrate for lignocellulolytic enzymes production by Pleurotus ostreatus, Journal of Cleaner production 197(1): 253-263

Disposal of waste sludges produced in large amounts in the pulp and paper industry imposes significant environmental and economical problems. One strategy to address these issues involves revalorization of paper mill sludges by their application as substrates for microbial production of biotechnologically relevant enzymes. The application of lignocellulolytic enzymes in paper, textile and bioenergy industries is encouraged in order to decrease chemicals and energy consumptions. In the following work, deinking sludge was assessed as a substrate for production of lignocellulases. Based on the results of growth and activity screenings, Pleurotus ostreatus PLAB was chosen as the most promising candidate among 30 tested strains and its secretome was further studied by quantitative enzyme assays and mass spectrometry. While endoglucanase and xylanase activities detected in P. ostreatus secretome produced on deinking sludge were similar to activities of cultures grown on other lignocellulosic substrates, average laccase activity was significantly higher (46?000 U/kg DIS). Mass spectrometry identification of the most prominent proteins in the secretome of the target strain confirmed that significant amounts of different lignin-modifying oxidases were produced on this substrate despite its low lignin content, indicating the presence of other inducible compounds. The findings of this study suggest deinking sludge may represent a good substrate for fungal production of the aforementioned enzymes with broad biotechnological applications, including bioremediation, paper and bioenergy industries.

Hayes, D. J. M., Hayes, M. H. B., Leahy, J. J. (2017) Use of Near Infrared Spectroscopy for the Rapid Low-Cost Analysis of Waste Papers and Cardboards, Faraday Discussions 202: 465-482

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Analytical data and quantitative near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy models for various lignocellulosic components (including Klason lignin and the constituent sugars glucose, xylose, mannose, arabinose, galactose, and rhamnose), ash, and ethanol-soluble extractives, were obtained for 53 samples of paper and cardboard. These samples were mostly the type of materials typically found in domestic wastes (e.g. newspapers, printing paper, glossy papers, food packaging). A number of the samples (48) were obtained by separating a sample, after milling, into two particle size fractions. It was found that the fractions containing the smaller particles typically had higher ash and Klason lignin contents and lower glucose and xylose contents that the larger particle size fractions. Nevertheless, all of the sample types had attractive total sugars contents (>50%) indicating that these could be suitable feedstocks for the production of biofuels and chemicals in hydrolysis-based biorefining technologies. NIR models of a high predictive accuracy (R2 of > 0.9 for the independent validation set) were obtained for total sugars, glucose, xylose, Klason lignin, and ash and with values for the Root Mean Square Error of Prediction (RMSEP) of 2.36%, 2.64%, 0.56%, 1.98%, and 4.87%, respectively. Good NIR models (R2 of > 0.8) were also obtained for mannose, arabinose, and galactose. These results suggest that NIR is a suitable method for the rapid, low-cost, analysis of the major lignocellulosic components of waste paper/cardboard samples.

Gottumukkala L.D, Haigh K, Gorgens J (2017) Trends and advances in conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to biobutanol: microbes, bioprocesses and industrial viability, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76: 963-973

Biobutanol has gained attention as an alternative renewable transportation fuel for its superior fuel properties and widespread applications in chemical industry, primarily as a solvent. Conventional butanol fermentation has drawbacks that include strain degeneration, end-product toxicity, by-product formation, low butanol concentrations and high substrate cost. The complexity of Clostridium physiology and close control between sporulation phase and ABE fermentation has made it demanding to develop industrially potent strains. In addition to the isolation and engineering of superior butanol producing bacteria, the development of advanced cost-effective technologies for butanol production from feedstock like lignocellulosic biomass has become the primary research focus. High process costs associated with complex feedstocks, product toxicity and low product concentrations are few of the several bioprocess challenges involved in biobutanol production. The article aims to assess the challenges in lignocellulosic biomass to biobutanol conversion and identify key process improvements that can make biobutanol commercially viable.

Gottumukka L.D, Haigh K, Collard F.X, Van Rensburg E, Gorgens J (2016) Opportunities and prospects of biorefinery-based valorisation of pulp and paper sludge, Bioresource technology 215: 37-49

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The paper and pulp industry is one of the major industries that generate large amount of solid waste with high moisture content. Numerous opportunities exist for valorisation of waste paper sludge, although this review focuses on primary sludge with high cellulose content. The most mature options for paper sludge valorisation are fermentation, anaerobic digestion and pyrolysis. In this review, biochemical and thermal processes are considered individually and also as integrated biorefinery. The objective of integrated biorefinery is to reduce or avoid paper sludge disposal by landfilling, water reclamation and value addition. Assessment of selected processes for biorefinery varies from a detailed analysis of a single process to high level optimisation and integration of the processes, which allow the initial assessment and comparison of technologies. This data can be used to provide key stakeholders with a roadmap of technologies that can generate economic benefits, and reduce carbon wastage and pollution load.

Boshoff A, Gottumukka L.D, Van Rensburg E, Gorgens J (2016) Paper sludge (PS) to bioethanol: Evaluation of virgin and recycle mill sludge for low enzyme, high-solids fermentationl, Bioresource technology 23: 103-111

Paper sludge (PS) from the paper and pulp industry consists primarily of cellulose and ash and has significant potential for ethanol production. Thirty-seven PS samples from 11 South African paper and pulp mills exhibited large variation in chemical composition and resulting ethanol production. Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) of PS in fed-batch culture was investigated at high solid loadings and low enzyme dosages. Water holding capacity and viscosity of the PS influenced ethanol production at elevated solid loadings of PS. High viscosity of PS from virgin pulp mills restricted the solid loading to 18% (w/w) at an enzyme dosage of 20 FPU/gram dry PS (gdPS), whereas an optimal solid loading of 27% (w/w) was achieved with corrugated recycle mill PS at 11 FPU/gdPS. Ethanol concentration and yield of virgin pulp and corrugated recycle PS were 34.2 g/L at 66.9% and 45.5 g/L at 78.2%, respectively.

Robus C.L.L, Gottumukkala, L.D, Van Rensburg E, Gorgens J.F. (2016) Feasible process development and techno-economic evaluation of paper sludge to bioethanol conversion: South African paper mills scenario, Renewable energy 92: 333-345

Paper sludge samples collected from recycling mills exhibited high ash content in the range of 54.59%–65.50% and glucose concentrations between 21.97% and 31.11%. Washing the sludge reduced the total ash content to between 10.7% and 19.31% and increased the concentration of glucose, xylose and lignin. Samples were screened for ethanol production and fed-batch simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) was optimised for the washed samples that resulted in highest and lowest ethanol concentrations. Maximum ethanol concentrations of 57.31 g/L and 47.72 g/L (94.07% and 85.34% of the maximum theoretical yield, respectively) was predicted for high and low fermentative potential samples, respectively, and was experimentally achieved with 1% deviation. A generic set of process conditions were established for the conversion of high ash-containing paper sludge to ethanol. Techno-economic analysis based on three different revenue scenarios, together with Monte Carlo analysis revealed 95% probability of achieving IRR values in excess of 25% at a paper sludge feed rate of 15 t/d. Feed rates of 30 t/d and 50 t/d exhibited a cumulative probability of 100%. This study presents the technical feasibility and economic viability of paper mills expansion towards bioethanol production from paper sludge.

Gottumukkala L.D. Gorgens J.F (2016) Biobutanol production from lignocellulosics, Biofuels Production and future perspectives, Singh R.S, Pandey A, Gnansounou E, Taylor & Francis group

Next-generation biofuels from renewable sources have gained interest among research investigators, industrialists, and governments due to major concerns on the volatility of oil prices, climate change, and depletion of oil reserves. Biobutanol has drawn signicant attention as an alternative transportation fuel due to its superior fuel properties over ethanol. e advantages of butanol are its high energy content, better blending with gasoline, less hydroscopic nature, lower volatility, direct use in convention engines, low corrosiveness, etc. Butanol production through (acetone, butanol, and ethanol) ABE fermentation is a well-established process, but it has several drawbacks like feedstock cost, strain degeneration, product toxicity, and low product concentrations. Lignocellulosic biomass is considered as the most abundant, renewable, low-cost feedstock for biofuels. Production of butanol from lignocellulosic biomass is more complicated due to the recalcitrance of feedstock and inhibitors generated during the pretreatment and hydrolysis process. Advanced fermentation and product recovery techniques are being researched to make biobutanol industrially viable.

Wnetrzak, R., Hayes, D. J. M., Jensen, L. S., Leahy, J. J., Kwapinski, W. (2015) Determination of the higher heating value of pig manure, Waste and Biomass Valorization 6(3): 327-333

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The ability of using novel method of near infrared (NIR) spectra to predict the composition and higher heating value (HHV) of dry pig manure was examined. Number of pig manure solid fractions variously pre-treated samples were collected in Denmark, from different pig slurry treatment plants (using mechanical or chemical-mechanical separation) and then analysed for their energy values. These values were determined by conventional method using bomb calorimetry and also calculated based on ultimate analysis. NIR spectra method was successfully applied and reasonable R2 values were obtained for the independent prediction set for nitrogen, ash, and the HHV. NIR also showed ability for predicting which type of treatment plants the samples came from. In addition, new empirical equations, based on ultimate analyses of pig manure solids used for prediction of the HHV was established.

Hayes, D. J. M., Hayes, M. H. B., Leahy, J. J. (2015) Analysis of the lignocellulosic components of peat samples with development of near infrared spectroscopy models for rapid quantitative predictions, Fuel 150: 261-268

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Analytical data and quantitative near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy models for various lignocellulosic components (including Klason lignin and the constituent sugars glucose, xylose, mannose, arabinose, galactose, and rhamnose), moisture, and ash were obtained for 53 peat samples. These included samples with high, medium, and low degrees of humification. Klason lignin was the main constituent and was greatest in the samples classified as being highly humified, with structural sugars the lowest in this class. The total sugars contents of all samples were considered to be insufficient to allow for their use in biorefining hydrolysis processes for the production of chemicals and biofuels. NIR models were developed for spectral datasets obtained from the samples in their unprocessed (wet), dry and unground, and dry and ground states. Typically the most accurate models were based on the spectra of dry and ground samples. However the NIR models for the wet samples still offered reasonable predictive capabilities. All models were suitable at least for sample screening, with the models for total sugars, glucose, xylose, galactose, and moisture suitable for quantitative analyses.

Sajna K.V., Sukumaran R. K., Gottumukkala L.D., Pandey A. (2015) Crude oil biodegradation aided by biosurfactants from Pseudozyma sp.NII 08165 or its culture broth, Bioresource Technology 191: 133-139

The aim of this work was to evaluate the biosurfactants produced by the yeast Pseudozyma sp. NII 08165 for enhancing the degradation of crude oil by a model hydrocarbon degrading strain, Pseudomonas putida MTCC 1194. Pseudozyma biosurfactants were supplemented at various concentrations to the P. putida culture medium containing crude oil as sole carbon source. Supplementation of the biosurfactants enhanced the degradation of crude oil by P. putida; the maximum degradation of hydrocarbons was observed with a 2.5 mg L(-1) supplementation of biosurfactants. Growth inhibition constant of the Pseudozyma biosurfactants was 11.07 mg L(-1). It was interesting to note that Pseudozyma sp. NII 08165 alone could also degrade diesel and kerosene. Culture broth of Pseudozyma containing biosurfactants resulted up to circa 46% improvement in degradation of C10-C24 alkanes by P. putida. The enhancement in degradation efficiency of the bacterium with the culture broth supplementation was even more pronounced than that with relatively purer biosurfactants.

Sajna K.P, Sukumaran R.K, Gottumukkala L.D, Pandey A (2015) Crude oil biodegradation aided by biosurfactants from Pseudozyma sp. NII 08165 or its culture broth, Bioresource technology 191: 133-139

The aim of this work was to evaluate the biosurfactants produced by the yeast Pseudozyma sp. NII 08165 for enhancing the degradation of crude oil by a model hydrocarbon degrading strain, Pseudomonas putida MTCC 1194. Pseudozyma biosurfactants were supplemented at various concentrations to the P. putida culture medium containing crude oil as sole carbon source. Supplementation of the biosurfactants enhanced the degradation of crude oil by P. putida; the maximum degradation of hydrocarbons was observed with a 2.5 mg L?1 supplementation of biosurfactants. Growth inhibition constant of the Pseudozyma biosurfactants was 11.07 mg L?1. It was interesting to note that Pseudozyma sp. NII 08165 alone could also degrade diesel and kerosene. Culture broth of Pseudozyma containing biosurfactants resulted up to ?46% improvement in degradation of C10–C24 alkanes by P. putida. The enhancement in degradation efficiency of the bacterium with the culture broth supplementation was even more pronounced than that with relatively purer biosurfactants.

Gottumukkala L.D, Sukumaran R.K. Mohan S.V. Valappil S.K. Sarkar O, Pandey A (2015) Rice straw hydrolysate to fuel and volatile fatty acid conversion by Clostridium sporogenes BE01: bio-electrochemical analysis of the electron transport mediators involved, Green chemistry 17(5): 3047-3058

Clostridium sporogenes BE01, a non-acetone forming butanol producer, can produce hydrogen and volatile fatty acids (VFAs) during butanol fermentation from rice straw hydrolysate. Bio-electrochemical analysis revealed the changes that occurred in the redox microenvironment and electron transport mediators during fermentation at different pH and CaCO3 concentrations. CaCO3 played a very important role in enhancing the production of hydrogen, volatile fatty acids and solvents by stimulating the changes in the electron transport system. The electron transport system mediated by NAD/NADH, flavins, Fe–S clusters, protein bound FAD, and cytochrome complex in C. sporogenes BE01 was analysed by cyclic voltammetry (CV). Electrokinetic analysis revealed that the favorability for redox reactions increased with an increase in pH, and the polarization resistance reduced significantly with CaCO3 supplementation.

Sajna K.V, Gottumukkala L.D, Sukumaran R.K, Pandey A. (2015) White biotechnology in cosmetics, Industrial Biorefineries & White Biotechnology, Pandey A, Hofer R, Taherzadeh M, Nampoothiri K.M. Larroche C. , Elsevier

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White biotechnology makes use of fermentation technology to produce various primary and secondary metabolites from microorganisms, plants, and animal cells at commercial level. Cosmetic industry has been using a variety of biotechnologically derived compounds in their cosmetic formulations due to their interesting skin- and hair-care functions and their potential to replace the harmful synthetic compounds. Biocompatibility, eco-friendly nature, versatile activity, and the superior performance are the major attributes offered by biotechnologically derived cosmetic ingredients. Some popular examples are epidermal growth factor, botulinum toxin, collagen, ceramide, and kojic acid. Purifications of bioactive molecules from the complex crude plant or animal extracts were made possible with the use of biorefinery and bioconversion techniques. Addition of pure phytochemicals in cosmetic formulations eliminated the need of adding the crude plant extract which usually results in contraindicatory symptoms and side effects. Recombinant DNA technology and genetic engineering allow the stable, large-scale production of bioactive molecules, which also avoid various ethical concerns usually associated with production and extraction of molecules, such as placental-derived proteins. Strain improvement and metabolic engineering addressed the challenges such as feedback regulation in the large-scale production of microbial compounds. This chapter discusses various dermatological and hair-care functions exhibited by biotechnologically derived compounds and structural classifications along with production aspects. This chapter also emphasizes the exploration of novel bioactive compounds for their cosmaceutical properties, and thus be a welcome addition to the modern cosmetic formulations.

Thomas L, Joseph A, Gottumukkala L.D. (2014) Xylanase and cellulase systems of Clostridium sp.: an insight on molecular approaches for strain improvement, Bioresource technology 158: 343-350

Bioethanol and biobutanol hold great promise as alternative biofuels, especially for transport sector, because they can be produced from lignocellulosic agro-industrial residues. From techno-economic point of view, the bioprocess for biofuels production should involve minimal processing steps. Consolidated bioprocessing (CBP), which combines various processing steps such as pretreatment, hydrolysis and fermentation in a single bioreactor, could be of great relevance for the production of bioethanol and biobutanol or solvents (acetone, butanol, ethanol), employing clostridia. For CBP, Clostridium holds best promise because it possesses multi-enzyme system involving cellulosome and xylanosome, which comprise several enzymes such as cellulases and xylanases. The aim of this article was to review the recent developments on enzyme systems of clostridia, especially xylanase and cellulase with an effort to analyse the information available on molecular approaches for the improvement of strains with ultimate aim to improve the efficiencies of hydrolysis and fermentation.

Gottumukkala L.D, Parameswaran B, Valappil S.K, Pandey A (2014) Growth and butanol production by Clostridium sporogenes BE01 in rice straw hydrolysate: kinetics of inhibition by organic acids and the strategies for their removal, Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery 4(3): 277-283

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Growth inhibition kinetics of a novel non-acetone forming butanol producer, Clostridium sporogenes BE01, was studied under varying concentrations of acetic and formic acids in rice straw hydrolysate medium. Both the organic acids were considered as inhibitors as they could inhibit the growth of the bacterium, and the inhibition constants were determined to be 1.6 and 0.76 g/L, respectively, for acetic acid and formic acid. Amberlite resins—XAD 4, XAD 7, XAD 16, and an anion exchange resin—Seralite 400 were tested for the efficient removal of these acidic inhibitors along with minimal adsorption of sugars and essential minerals present in the hydrolysate. Seralite 400 was an efficient adsorbent of acids, with minimal affinity towards minerals and sugars. Butanol production was evaluated to emphasize the effect of minerals loss and acids removal by the resins during detoxification.

Hayes, D. J. M. (2013) Mass and Compositional Changes, Relevant to Biorefining, in Miscanthus x giganteus Plants over the Harvest Window, Bioresource Technology 142: 591-602

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Miscanthus plants were sampled from several plantations in Ireland over the harvest window (October-April). These were separated into their anatomical components and the loss of leaves monitored. Three distinct phases were apparent: there was minimal loss in the "Early" (October to early December) and "Late" (March and April) phases, and rapid leaf loss in the interim period. Samples were analysed for constituents relevant to biorefining. Changes in whole-plant composition included increases in glucose and Klason lignin contents and decreases in ash and arabinose contents. These changes arose mostly from the loss of leaves, but there were some changes over time within the harvestable plant components. Although leaves yield less biofuel than stems, the added biomass provided by an early harvest (31.9-38.4%) meant that per hectare biofuel yields were significantly greater (up to 29.3%) than in a late harvest. These yields greatly exceed those from first generation feedstocks.

Hayes, D. J. M. (2013) Second-generation biofuels: why they are taking so long, Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Energy and Environment 2(3): 304-334

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There has been a significant degree of hype regarding the commercial potential of second-generation biofuels (2GBs; biofuels sourced from lignocellulosic materials). In 2007, ambitious targets for the mass substitution of fossil-fuel-derived transport fuels by 2GBs were put forward in the United States and similar targets exist for other countries. However, as of May 2012, no commercial-scale 2GB facilities are currently operating. The technical and financial obstacles that have delayed the deployment of these facilities are discussed, as are recent advancements in research that may help to overcome some of these. There are six commercial-scale facilities currently (May, 2012) in construction and many more are planned in the near term. The prospects for 2GBs are more promising now than in the past but the delays in getting to this point mean that the ambitious targets of several years ago are unlikely to be reached in the near term.

Hayes, D.J.M. (2013) Biomass composition and its relevance to biorefining, The Role of Catalysis for the Sustainable Production of Biofuels and Bio-chemicals, K. Triantafyllidis, A. Lappas, M. Stoker, Elsevier B. V.27-65

Biomass feedstocks for the production of biofuels and chemicals vary greatly in their chemical compositions. These differences affect which technologies are used for processing. First generation technologies focus on the conversion of sugars, starches, and oils whilst second generation technologies process lignocellulose. While the conversion in first generation processes is relatively facile, the processing of lignocellulose is hindered by the complexity of the biomass matrix. Lignocellulosic feedstocks, however, tend to be significantly less costly, in economic, environmental, and energy terms, to produce. The effects of the various constituents on the conversion of biomass by either hydrolytic or thermochemical means are discussed, as are the logistical considerations needed when sourcing feedstocks. Biomass can be classified as a specifically grown energy crop, an agricultural residue, or a waste resource. Several examples of lignocellulosic feedstocks are discussed for each of these types and representative chemical data for a variety of materials presented.

Hayes, D. J. M. (2013) Report on Optimal Use of DIBANET Feedstocks and Technologies, DIBANET WP5 Report84 pages

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The DIBANET process chain, as a result of its patented pre-treatment stage, has significantly increased the yields of levulinic acid, formic acid, and furfural beyond what was considered to be the state of the art. By fractionating lignocellulosic biomass into its three main polymers (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin) it has also allowed for lignin to be recovered and sold as a higher-value product. These developments have meant that the amount of acid hydrolysis residues (AHRs) that have been produced are significantly (up to 88%) less than in the Biofine process. These AHRs are required to provide process heat for DIBANET. Direct combustion is the most efficient means for doing this. If such combustion does not occur and the AHRs are instead used in other processes, e.g. pyrolysis and gasification, then more biomass will need to be purchased to fuel the core DIBANET process. The AHRs have not been proven to be superior to virgin biomass when put through these thermochemical processes. Indeed, many of the results from DIBANET Work Package 4 indicate the opposite. Hence, given that DIBANET, and the modelling of its optimal configuration, is designed on the basis of an integrated process, centred on the core element of the acid hydrolysis of biomass, then combustion is the only viable end use for the AHRs. Given that realisation, the focus of this modelling Deliverable is on what the optimal configuration of the process chain would be regarding the three core stages (pretreatment, hydrolysis, and the esterification of levulinic acid with ethanol). It has been demonstrated that a scenario incorporating only the first stage can be profitable in its own right and allow for commercial development at much lower capital costs. In this instance bagasse is a much more attractive feedstock, compared with Miscanthus, due to its higher pentose content.

Integrating the second stage increases capital costs but improves the net present value. The esterification step is somewhat capital intensive but an integrated DIBANET biorefinery that incorporates all three stages can still be highly profitable providing the furfural is sold at its current market price and the lignin is sold rather than used as a fuel for process needs. Indeed, the DIBANET process should not be considered only in the context of biofuels but as a true biorefinery that produces lower value fuels (e.g. ethyl-levulinate) in addition to high value chemicals and bio-products (e.g. furfural and lignin).

The energy and carbon balances of the various DIBANET scenarios have been investigated and are highly positive with values significantly superior to those for the energy-intensive Biofine process. A socioeconomic survey has also been carried out and has shown that there can be a positive effect on employment, both direct and indirect, particularly when Miscanthus is used as the feedstock. The DIBANET integrated process also holds up well when its environmental and social performances are ranked for a range of important parameters.

The development of the core DIBANET IP towards commercial deployment appears to be warranted, based on data provided from the models developed. Indeed, these models present possible scenarios whereby even demonstration-scale DIBANET facilities could operate at significant profits and provide healthy returns on the capital invested.

Gottumukkala, L. D, Valappi, S. K. (2013) Biobutanol production from rice straw by a non acetone producing Clostridium sporogenes BE01, Bioresource Technology 145: 182-187

Biobutanol from lignocellulosic biomass has gained much attention due to several advantages over bioethanol. Though microbial production of butanol through ABE fermentation is an established technology, the use of lignocellulosic biomass as feedstock presents several challenges. In the present study, biobutanol production from enzymatic hydrolysate of acid pretreated rice straw was evaluated using Clostridium sporogenes BE01. This strain gave a butanol yield of 3.43 g/l and a total solvent yield of 5.32 g/l in rice straw hydrolysate supplemented with calcium carbonate and yeast extract. Hydrolysate was analyzed for the level of inhibitors such as acetic acid, formic acid and furfurals which affect the growth of the organism and in turn ABE fermentation. Methods for preconditioning the hydrolysate to remove toxic end products were done so as to improve the fermentation efficiency. Conditions of ABE fermentation were fine tuned resulting in an enhanced biobutanol reaching 5.52 g/l.

Sajna K.V., Sukumaran R. K., Jayamurthy H., Gottumukkala L.D., Reddy K., Kanjilal S., Prasad R.B. N., Pandey A. (2013) Studies on biosurfactants from Pseudozyma sp. NII 08165 and their potential application as laundry detergent additives, Biochemical Engineering Journal 78: 85-92

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The novel isolate Pseudozyma sp. NII 08165 produced glycolipid biosurfactants, which was a combination of all the three mannosylerythritol lipids (MELs) isomers along with some unknown glycolipids. The strain produced 34 g/l MELs in medium containing 8% (w/v) soybean oil as carbon source after nine days of fermentation. The structural characterization of purified MEL revealed the hydrophobic structure of MEL-C consisting of short chain fatty acid (C2 or C4) at the C-2' position and a long chain fatty acid (C14, C16 or C18) at the C-3' position of the mannose moiety. The MEL-C showed good surface activity with critical micelle concentration (CMC) of 4.5 x 10-6 M and surface tension of 33 mN/m at CMC. The crude biosurfactants were stable at high temperature and over the alkaline pH range which favour their scope of application as laundry detergent additives. Fabric wash analysis revealed that crude biosurfactants from Pseudozyma sp. NII 08165 removed stains efficiently and can be used in laundry detergent formulations.

Gottumukkala L.D, Parameswaran B, Valappil S.K, Mathiyazhakan, K (2013) Biobutanol production from rice straw by a non acetone producing Clostridium sporogenes BE01, Bioresource technology 145: 182-187

Biobutanol from lignocellulosic biomass has gained much attention due to several advantages over bioethanol. Though microbial production of butanol through ABE fermentation is an established technology, the use of lignocellulosic biomass as feedstock presents several challenges. In the present study, biobutanol production from enzymatic hydrolysate of acid pretreated rice straw was evaluated using Clostridium sporogenes BE01. This strain gave a butanol yield of 3.43 g/l and a total solvent yield of 5.32 g/l in rice straw hydrolysate supplemented with calcium carbonate and yeast extract. Hydrolysate was analyzed for the level of inhibitors such as acetic acid, formic acid and furfurals which affect the growth of the organism and in turn ABE fermentation. Methods for preconditioning the hydrolysate to remove toxic end products were done so as to improve the fermentation efficiency. Conditions of ABE fermentation were fine tuned resulting in an enhanced biobutanol reaching 5.52 g/l.

Sajna K.V, Sukumaran R.K, Gottumukkala L.D, Jayamurthy H, Dhar K.S (2013) Studies on structural and physical characteristics of a novel exopolysaccharide from Pseudozyma sp. NII 08165, International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 59: 84-89

The aim of this work was to study the production of exopolysaccharide (EPS) from a novel ustilaginomycetes yeast strain Pseudozyma sp. NII 08165. The culture produced 3.5g/l EPS on fourth day of fermentation in a glucose-based medium. The structural characterization revealed that the EPS was a polymer of glucose, galactose and mannose in the ratio of 2.4:5.0:2.6 with a molecular weight of 1.7MDa. The pseudoplastic behaviour of aqueous EPS with a thermal stability up to 220 C indicated its potential utility as a thickening or gelling agent in food industry. SEM studies of the EPS showed that it had compact film-like structure, which could make it a useful in preparing plasticized films. The AFM studies showed that EPS had spike-shaped microstructure. Physical properties of the exopolysaccharide determined further indicated its possible potential in different industrial applications.

Hayes, D. J. M. (2012) Development of near infrared spectroscopy models for the quantitative prediction of the lignocellulosic components of wet Miscanthus samples, Bioresource Technology 119: 393-405

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Miscanthus samples were scanned over the visible and near infrared wavelengths at several stages of processing (wet-chopped, air-dried, dried and ground, and dried and sieved). Models were developed to predict lignocellulosic and elemental constituents based on these spectra. The dry and sieved scans gave the most accurate models; however the wet-chopped models for glucose, xylose, and Klason lignin provided excellent accuracies with root mean square error of predictions of 1.27%, 0.54%, and 0.93%, respectively. These models can be suitable for most applications. The wet models for arabinose, Klason lignin, acid soluble lignin, ash, extractives, rhamnose, acid insoluble residue, and nitrogen tended to have lower R(2) values (0.80+) for the validation sets and the wet models for galactose, mannose, and acid insoluble ash were less accurate, only having value for rough sample screening. This research shows the potential for online analysis at biorefineries for the major lignocellulosic constituents of interest.

Hayes, D. J. M. (2012) Review of Biomass Feedstocks and Guidelines of Best Practice, DIBANET WP2 Report150 pages

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This document is the result of the evaluation of biomass feedstocks, from Europe and Latin America, that took place as part of the DIBANET project. That project is co-financed from the 7 th Framework Programme for Research and Technological Demonstration of the European Union. (Title: Enhancing international cooperation between the EU and Latin America in the field of biofuels; Grant Agreement No: 227248-2).

The work in Task 2.1 of Work Package 2 (WP2) at DIBANET partners UL, CTC, and UNICAMP involved evaluating, on a number of levels, potential feedstocks for utilisation in the DIBANET acid-hydrolysis process (WP3). In the early stage of the project a wide number of feedstocks were examined and relevant secondary compositional data were sought from the literature. Selected feedstocks were analysed at the laboratories of UL, CTC, and UNICAMP and, from these, a limited number of feedstocks were subjected to more in-depth analysis/evaluation.

Work at UL focused on Miscanthus, cereal straws, and waste papers. The wet-chemical and spectroscopic analysis that was carried out on a wide number of Miscanthus samples have allowed for in-depth understandings to be reached regarding the changes in lignocellulosic composition, and potential biomass/biofuel yields that could be realised over the harvest window. Straws present much less chemical variation but have enough structural carbohydrates to warrant their processing in the DIBANET technology. Waste papers can have amongst the highest total carbohydrate contents of any of the feedstocks studied.

Work at CTC focused on the residues of the sugarcane industry - sugarcane bagasse and sugarcane trash (field residues from harvesting). A large number of samples were collected from a variety of sugar mills and plantations. It has been seen that there can be a significant variation in the composition of different bagasse samples, particularly with regards to the ash content. Sugarcane trash has lower total carbohydrates contents than bagasse but is still a suitable feedstock for DIBANET.

Work at UNICAMP focused on the evaluation of residues from the banana, coffee, and coconut industries. It was found that these also have potential for utilisation in the DIBANET process, however the value of the residues for this end-use is dependent on which part of the plant is utilised. For instance, coffee husks have sufficient structural carbohydrates to allow for decent yields of levulinic acid, formic acid, and furfural in DIBANET, however the leaves of the coffee plant do not. Leaves from the banana plant are also of less value for DIBANET than the other parts of the plant (e.g. stem).

A major output of this Deliverable is the downloadable electronic database that contains all of the WP2 analytical data obtained during the course of the project. It contains analytical data and predicted biorefining yields for a total of 1,281 samples. It can be obtained, free of charge, from the DIBANET website and will be a valuable tool for stakeholders in biorefining projects.

This document presents the data and evaluations that were made regarding biomass feedstocks, and also puts forward guidelines of best practice in terms of making the best use of these resources. A shortened version of this document can also be downloaded from the DIBANET website.

Hayes, D. J. M. (2011) Analysis of Lignocellulosic Feedstocks for Biorefineries with a Focus on The Development of Near Infrared Spectroscopy as a Primary Analytical Tool, PhD Thesis832 pages (over 2 volumes)

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The processing of lignocellulosic materials in modern biorefineries will allow for the production of transport fuels and platform chemicals that could replace petroleum-derived products. However, there is a critical lack of relevant detailed compositional information regarding feedstocks relevant to Ireland and Irish conditions. This research has involved the collection, preparation, and the analysis, with a high level of precision and accuracy, of a large number of biomass samples from the waste and agricultural sectors. Not all of the waste materials analysed are considered suitable for biorefining; for example the total sugar contents of spent mushroom composts are too low. However, the waste paper/cardboard that is currently exported from Ireland has a chemical composition that could result in high biorefinery yields and so could make a significant contribution to Ireland’s biofuel demands.

Miscanthus was focussed on as a major agricultural feedstock. A large number of plants have been sampled over the course of the harvest window (October to April) from several sites. These have been separated into their anatomical fractions and analysed. This has allowed observations to be made regarding the compositional trends observed within plants, between plants, and between harvest dates. Projections are made regarding the extents to which potential chemical yields may vary. For the DIBANET hydrolysis process that is being developed at the University of Limerick, per hectare yields of levulinic acid from Miscanthus could be 20% greater when harvested early compared with a late harvest.

The wet-chemical analysis of biomass is time-consuming. Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) has been developed as a rapid primary analytical tool with separate quantitative models developed for the important constituents of Miscanthus, peat, and (Australian) sugarcane bagasse. The work has demonstrated that accurate models are possible, not only for dry homogenous samples, but also for wet heterogeneous samples. For glucose (cellulose) the root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) for wet samples is 1.24% and the R2 for the validation set ( ) is 0.931. High accuracies are even possible for minor analytes; e.g. for the rhamnose content of wet Miscanthus samples the RMSEP is 0.03% and the is 0.845. Accurate models have also been developed for pre-treated Miscanthus samples and are discussed. In addition, qualitative models have been developed. These allow for samples to be discriminated for on the basis of plant fraction, plant variety (giganteus/non-giganteus), harvest-period (early/late), and stand-age (one-year/older).

Quantitative NIRS models have also been developed for peat, although the heterogeneity of this feedstock means that the accuracies tend to be lower than for Miscanthus. The development of models for sugarcane bagasse has been hindered, in some cases, by the limited chemical variability between the samples in the calibration set. Good models are possible for the glucose and total sugars content, but the accuracy of other models is poorer. NIRS spectra of Brazilian bagasse samples have been projected onto these models, and onto those developed for Miscanthus, and the Miscanthus models appear to provide a better fit than the Australian bagasse models.

Singhania R.R, Sukumaran R.K, Rajasree K.P, Mathew A, Gottumukkala L.D, Pandey A (2011) Properties of a major ?-glucosidase-BGL1 from Aspergillus niger NII-08121 expressed differentially in response to carbon sources, Process Biochemistry 46(7): 1521-1524

Aspergillus niger NII-08121/MTCC 7956 exhibited differences in expression of ?-glucosidase (BGL) in response to carbon sources provided in the medium. Activity staining with methyl umbelliferyl ?-d-glucopyranoside (MUG) indicated that four different isoforms of BGL were expressed when A. niger was grown under submerged fermentation with either lactose or cellulose, whereas only two were expressed when wheat bran or rice straw was used as the carbon source. Among the four isoforms of BGL expressed during lactose supplementation, two were found to retain 92% and 82% activity respectively in presence of 250 mM glucose in the MUG assay. The major ?-glucosidase (BGL1) was purified to homogeneity by electro elution from a Native PAGE gel. The purified 120 kDa protein was active at 50 °C and was stable for 48 h without any loss of activity. The optimum pH and temperature were 4.8 and 70 °C respectively.

Sukumaran R.K, Gottumukkala L.D, Rajasree K.P, Alex D, Pandey A (2011) Butanol fuel from biomass: Revisiting ABE fermentation, Biofuels, Pandey A, Ricke, S, Gnansounou E, Larroche C, Dussap C-G. , Elsevier

ABE (Acetone-Butanol-Ethanol) fermentations were next only to ethanol fermentations and used to be a major industry until 1960s. Later, biological route for butanol production lost its importance owing to competition from petrochemical route, and today there is a renewed interest in ABE fermentation due to increased concerns over petroleum depletion and the increased pollution due to burning of petroleum fuels. Though the ABE fermentation process used to be operational decades back, the same technologies are not applicable today due to the lack of cost effectiveness and the nonavailability of conventional raw materials. The most feasible feedstock for butanol seems to be lignocellulose, but the problems plaguing bioethanol are also applicable for biobutanol. However, the future for biobutanol seemsbright since the Clostridia that produce ABE are capable of utilizing a range of carbon sources for growth and solvent production and also are not inhibited by the sugar degradation products generated during biomass pretreatment are being developed. Meanwhile, in the short term, advanced fermentation technologies are being developed by the expert groups which tackle problems such as low cell density, viability, and solvent sensitivity by modulations in the methods of carbon feeding, mode of culture, and in situ removal and recovery of solvents. These efforts may be developed into commercially viable technologies.

Parameswaran, B, Raveendran S, Singhania, R.R, Surender V, L Devi, Nagalakshmi S, Kurien N, Sukumaran R.K, Pandey A. (2010) Bioethanol production from rice straw: an overview, Bioresource technology 101(13): 4767-4774

Rice straw is an attractive lignocellulosic material for bioethanol production since it is one of the most abundant renewable resources. It has several characteristics, such as high cellulose and hemicelluloses content that can be readily hydrolyzed into fermentable sugars. But there occur several challenges and limitations in the process of converting rice straw to ethanol. The presence of high ash and silica content in rice straw makes it an inferior feedstock for ethanol production. One of the major challenges in developing technology for bioethanol production from rice straw is selection of an appropriate pretreatment technique. The choice of pretreatment methods plays an important role to increase the efficiency of enzymatic saccharification thereby making the whole process economically viable. The present review discusses the available technologies for bioethanol production using rice straw.

Aswathy U.S, Sukumaran R.K, Devi G.L, Rajasree K.P, Singhania R.R. (2010) Bio-ethanol from water hyacinth biomass: an evaluation of enzymatic saccharification strategy, Bioresource technology 101(3): 925-930

Biomass feedstock having less competition with food crops are desirable for bio-ethanol production and such resources may not be localized geographically. A distributed production strategy is therefore more suitable for feedstock like water hyacinth with a decentralized availability. In this study, we have demonstrated the suitability of this feedstock for production of fermentable sugars using cellulases produced on site. Testing of acid and alkali pretreatment methods indicated that alkali pretreatment was more efficient in making the sample susceptible to enzyme hydrolysis. Cellulase and ?-glucosidase loading and the effect of surfactants were studied and optimized to improve saccharification. Redesigning of enzyme blends resulted in an improvement of saccharification from 57% to 71%. A crude trial on fermentation of the enzymatic hydrolysate using the common baker’s yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae yielded an ethanol concentration of 4.4 g/L.



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